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Rock art is an expression of human behaviour in a symbolic way. It is an assemblage of signs and symbols which are not easy to explain as they appear. Some of the symbols are very common worldwide like the symbols of procreation or fertility. These are present in art from palaeolithic art to modern art. Present research paper is a small attempt to highlight and decode these depictions like pregnancy, child birth and other scenes and symbols related to the theme in light of human’s biological, social and cultural behaviour. All kind of behaviour which are liable to bring individuals together, comes under social behaviour. Social behaviour is interaction of people to make the survival easy, it also includes cultural activities which can be seen as psychological support for survival. Reproduction is a part of human’s biological behaviour but it also builds social behaviour among people. Different steps of this process (reproduction) need social cooperation and psychological support which creates the basic structure of the society. In the present paper, through the study of rock art we will try to find out how the social and cultural behaviour of people in the past managed the evolutionary or biological problems of reproduction.

Keywords: rock art, pregnancy, child birth, evolution, obstetrics dilemma, human behaviour

This research paper explores Yoga as a holistic system that unites philosophy, science, and liberation (mok?a). By analyzing foundational texts such as the ?gveda, Ka?hopani?ad, Yoga V?si??ha, Ha?ha Yoga Prad?pik?, ?iva Sa?hit?, and the P?tañjala Yoga S?tras, the study traces Yoga’s historical evolution, etymology, and its role as a comprehensive epistemological system. Examining the Bhagavad G?t? and P?tañjala Yoga S?tras, the research highlights Yoga’s integrative worldview, harmonizing metaphysics, ethics, and self-realization. It also explores its scientific dimension through Samyama (Dh?ra??, Dhy?na, and Sam?dhi), demonstrating its structured approach to acquiring knowledge beyond sensory perception and logical inference. Employing a qualitative, interpretive methodology—incorporating hermeneutical analysis and textual exegesis—the study illustrates how Yoga bridges existence’s gross (Apara) and subtle (Para) dimensions, offering a holistic understanding of reality. Beyond its contemporary portrayal as a tool for health and well-being, Yoga emerges as both a timeless philosophy and a scientific discipline. Integrating philosophical inquiry, scientific exploration, and spiritual discipline serves as a transformative path to self-realization and universal harmony. This paper ultimately positions Yoga as an enduring heritage of wisdom that provides a comprehensive framework for understanding existence and attaining life’s ultimate truths.

Keywords: Yoga Philosophy, Yogic Epistemology, Gyan and Vigyan, Samyama and Knowledge Acquisition, Union and Dissolution in Yoga, S?dhana and S?dhya, P?tañjala Yoga S?tras, Bhagavad G?t? and Yoga, Spiritual Liberation (Mok?a), Apara and Para Prak?ti, Timeless Heritage of Yoga, Pancha Kosha and Consciousness, ?tambhar? Prajñ?, Indian Knowledge Systems, Philosophy and Science Integration, Historical Evolution of Yoga.

Art is critical and essential for expressions that have been reflected on various materials throughout human history. Petroglyphs forming an important aspect of rock art is critical in understanding and reconstructing Mizoram’s history from an archaeological perspective. Art and its various forms of expressions have been extensively made on megaliths and this is further added by petroglyphs found on natural rock surfaces. Lianpui with its numerous megalithic engravings as well as petroglyphs, location on the peripheral area with instances of migrations in the past shows archaeological richness and potential. Interpretation and understanding of the archaeological materials would contribute towards the progress and development of archaeology and enrich the cultural heritage of Mizoram.

Keywords: Art. Petroglyphs. Mizoram. Lianpui

During the late 4th century CE, the situation on the Korean Peninsula was in a state of flux. Cavalry tactics in warfare, for example, were being actively adopted, and the horse-riding tradition was transmitted to Japan, along with other aspects of culture and practice. Two horse-tooth fragments found in a Daeseong-dong tomb dating to the 4th century Gaya Confederacy, therefore, can be of great significance to animal archaeology. In gross- orphological and ancient DNA (aDNA) analyses, we confirmed that the fragments from Tomb #1 were from horse teeth. To determine the breeding pattern for horses in the 4th century Gaya Confederacy, we subjected the fragments to strontium isotope (87Sr/86Sr) analysis. The 87Sr/86Sr values were 0.710083±0.000018 (KH-30) and 0.710263±0.000018 (KH-34), respectively, which were found to be mostly in close agreement with the herbaceous plant 87Sr/86Sr values representative of the southeastern part of the Korean Peninsula where the Gaya Confederacy and, later, the Silla Kingdom gained the ascendancy. We speculate that it was probably only after Korea was unified under the Silla Kingdom that horse breeding was established throughout the Peninsula by the central government.

Keywords: Daeseong-dong; Gaya; Horse; Isotope; Korea; Strontium

Archaeological evidence from the Paleolithic to the Iron Age in the south and southeast of the Caspian Sea indicates a fundamental change in the structure of life of the people in these areas during this successive period. One of the most important changes that took place in the societies of this region during the Bronze Age (urbanization) compared to the previous period is the changes in burial traditions. The burials from this period contain rich information about the social, economic and cultural structures of these communities. No studies of bronze age burials have yet been carried out in the region. Remains of graves and similar burial practices in the area also indicate cultural influences and similarities in the area. The presence of similar grave goods among the graves in this area suggests that the similar function of these objects is considered for the deceased. In this study, we have tried to use Parsons' structural-functionalist framework of thought to gain a better understanding of the level of social classes in Gohar Tepe society and analyses its social system based on the objects discovered in the burials. Other objectives of this study are burial traditions and cultural influences between the southern and southeastern Caspian Sea sites and adjacent areas. Despite the numerous problems in this study, the results indicate a similar burial tradition for the deceased in this cultural area. Comparative studies of grave goods and burial traditions also indicate cultural influence and the existence of a community with different class levels in the study areas.

Keywords: Bronze Age, Gohar Tepe, Burial Tradition, Parsons structural-functionalist.

The Na?tha Siddhas are an order of renunciate ascetics renowned for the historical practice of ha?ha yoga and tantra. The sect is encountered from Kashmir to Tamil Nadu, however, it has historically evolved into diverse regional forms, encompassing varied hagiographies, practices, beliefs, etc. The N?tha Siddhas aimed to attain siddhis (perfections) through various yogic and tantric practices, including rasa?yana (alchemy). Srisailam is a prominent S?aivite pilgrimage site in A?ndhrades?a and an enigmatic center of Siddhas. The pra?ka?ra wall of Mallika?rjuna temple at Srisailam features an array of ascetic and Siddha figures, depicted in acts such as ha?ha yoga, alchemy, etc. This paper in the aforesaid context attempts to situate alchemy in the regional nature of the Na?tha Siddha sect in A?ndhrades?a. It presents the textual and archaeological evidence of Srisailam as a center of rasa?yana, alongside an iconographic analysis of sculptural panels depicting Siddha alchemy. Further, it highlights the role of alchemical practices in the historical prominence of Na?tha Siddhas in medieval A?ndhrades?a.

Keywords: Na?tha, Siddha, Alchemy, Tantra, S?aivism, Srisailam, Vijayanagara.

This paper presents the findings of rescue excavations conducted at Pachamta, one of three sites investigated as part of the Mewar Plain Archaeological Assessment (MPAA) in Rajasthan, India. Faced with imminent destruction due to developmental activities, Pachamta revealed a stratified occupation with a thin Early Historic layer overlying substantial remains of the Ahar Chalcolithic culture (c. 3200-1700 BCE). Excavations unearthed a parallel-walled structure or compartmented building, along with associated platforms and bins, exhibiting multiple construction phases roughly dated 2000-1900 BCE (Late Ahar Banas period). The ceramic assemblage is characteristic of the Ahar culture, featuring White Painted Black and Red Ware as a diagnostic type, alongside other wares and decorative techniques. Comparative analysis of the Pachamta structure with a similar, earlier (Middle Ahar Banas period) structure at Gilund, another Ahar site, suggests a potential shift in administrative power within the Mewar region during the later phases of the Chalcolithic period. This research contributes to understanding the socio-political dynamics of the Ahar Chalcolithic culture, highlighting the role of administration over time. The rescue excavation underscores the critical role of such projects in salvaging crucial archaeological data from sites threatened by modern development.

Keywords: Ahar Chalcolithic, Parallel-Walled Structure, Late Ahar Phase, Ceramic analysis, socio-political dynamics, Rescue excavations.

The paper examines primary sources, including both archaeological and textual evidence, as well as studies conducted to date on the nature of Kaushambi and its role in the development and dissemination of early Buddhist art. It also assesses the impact on the spread of Buddhist doctrine, religious practices, and cultural norms throughout the middle Ganga Valley and into north India. Careful consideration is given to trade routes and interconnected networks to enhance understanding of the spatial relationships between Kaushambi and other significant ancient Indian Buddhist sites. The study investigates the diversity of Buddhist art evidence found at the site, the challenges of interpreting it, and the interplay between sociopolitical factors, patronage, and art innovation, emphasizing their influence on the evolution of Buddhist art. Furthermore, it focuses on the reasons for the cultural reliance on local terracotta production for artistic sustainability, which has shaped the broader canon of stone art, particularly in the case of Kaushambi.

Keywords: Ghositarama Monastery, trade routes, Bhita, early Buddhist art, middle Ganga Valley, sphinx.

The unconventional nature of idols of deities causes a challenge in academia to comprehend the true significance and value of their cultural heritage due to the profound changes in their notions and beliefs over time. The frequent risk of losing or misunderstanding the original meanings and identities of Indian deities primarily stems from significant temporal and contextual changes. Societal evolution has substantially transformed their identities. These alterations in worship practices have implications for cultural studies and religious fusion. It is crucial to explore how various theories, iconography, and symbolism enhance our understanding of the evolving  dynamics in religious practices over a period. Accordingly, this study will examine the unconventional transformations of deities' identities, with icons of goddess ??tal?, serving as the primary case. Goddess ??tal? is an Indian Hindu goddess associated with epidemics, who serves as the patron deity for both smallpox and chickenpox. The study will concentrate on the port sites of Mumbai and its suburbs, including Greater Mumbai, Navi Mumbai, Thane, and Palghar with the primary aim of comprehending the multifaceted aspects associated with the unconventional nature of icons of goddess ??tal?.

Keywords: Epidemic Goddess, Goddess ??tal?, Iconic Worship, Cultural Transformation, Archaeology of Religion, Mumbai

Spooner’s excavation of P?taliputra started a new kind of debate in the historical traditions of the Magadha region. Although his identification of Kumrahar as a Mauryan Palace was vehemently criticised and denounced by prominent historians like A. B. Keith and A. S. Altekar, echoes of his writings still reverberate in some distant corners of historical writings. Many still consider the Kumrahar archaeological remains a Mauryan Palace edifice. The examination of the archaeological facts and their cross-references in the Buddhist literature indicates that the Pillared Hall of Kumrahar was a part of A?ok?r?ma/Kukkut?r?ma built by A?oka. The Hall, particularly, might be an assembly hall or uposathag?ra, which not only facilitated fortnight assemblies of monks and nuns but also took important ecclesiastical decisions in the age of A?oka. The paper will examine these threads from a microscopic view.

Keywords: Kumrahar, A?ok?r?ma, Kukkut?r?ma, uposathag?ra.

Coins of the Gupta Dynasty bear witness and testimony to the emergent trends in the interconnected world of Imperial Politics, Religious-Systems, Trade-organizations and Monarchical Propaganda of the times. Their study acquaints us with the prevalent iconographic conventions and ritual imagery of popular deity-figures, in a way inspired by the preceding Ku???a Numismatics. While the feminine deity-figure on the reverse of these coins is generally identified as Lak?m? and river-goddess Gang?, a female deity-figure sitting atop a couchant or recumbent lion awaits attributional definitiveness and identification with certitude. Some have proposed to see in her an early form of Durg? with her characteristic feline mount, while others have labeled her as Lak?m? in a dramatic numismatic communion with the reigning King, who occupies the obverse-device in myriad actions, styles and poses. Using two renowned numismatic cases of her occurrence as the chief reverse-device of gold Gupta Coins, i.e. Chandragupta I-Kum?radev? type and Lion-slayer type, and utilizing the contextual delineation and discourse that forms the numismatic essence of Gupta coinage, this paper shall make an attempt to unravel the mystery of the Goddess Mystique, and put forth arguments to astutely and affirmatively identify her as Goddess Durg?.

Keywords: Durg?, Chandragupta I-Kum?radev?, Licchhavis, Lion-slayer, Si?havikrama, Goddess-figure.

The field of archaeological research in Mizoram, one of the northeastern states of India is relatively young and under-developed. Current archaeological investigations and surveys have brought to light that the State has a rich Megalithic Tradition. This Megalithic tradition offers a unique lens through which one can examine the interplay of gender, power, and spirituality. Mizo beliefs suggest that success in the hunt hinges on the entry of a "feminine spirit" into the heart of the sportsman. Besides, there are few megaliths (although less explicitly documented) commemorating stories associated with women. This paper will discuss few case studies as part of archaeological inquiry, coupled with an in-depth study of Mizo oral traditions and folklore, that can shed light on past societal dictum of portraying women.

Keywords: Gender, Women, Mizoram, Megalithic Culture, folklore, Past-society, India.

Raichur Doab is geographically a confluence region of Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers, covering Raichur district of Karnataka and Kurnool district of Andhra Pradesh and Jogulamba Gadwal district in Telangana. Neolithic sites in Eastern Raichur Doab fall under the Southern Neolithic (3200-1200 BCE) group with its general characteristic being sedentary villages with rich ground and edge stone tool assemblages, ceramic assemblages, animal and plant remains and the most unique is the ashmound and rock art sites. This paper highlights the landscape and settlement pattern of Neolithic sites in the Eastern part of Raichur Doab, where the Neolithic villages seem associated with the granitic hills with dyke resources, perhaps also bearing substantial natural springs. As the region is geomorphologically conditioned to two broad non-perennial channels (Krishna and Tungabhadra, the landscape must have been prospective to groundwater aquifers, and dykes in the hills barrier to rise springs. This paper also reviews the nature and locational pattern of Neolithic sites in the Eastern part of Raichur Doab analysed with the use of geospatial tools like Google Earth, Base Camp and ArcGIS.